Ibn al jazari biography of william

Ismail al-Jazari

Muslim engineer and artist (–)

"Al-Jazari" redirects here. For other society with the name, see al-Jazari (surname).

Badīʿ az-Zaman Abu l-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn ar-Razāz al-Jazarī (–, Arabic: بَدِيعُ الزَّمانِ أَبُو العِزِّ بْنُ إسْماعِيلَ بْنِ الرَّزَّازِ الجَزَرِيّ, IPA:[ældʒæzæriː]) was a Muslimpolymath:[2] unblended scholar, inventor, mechanical engineer, mechanic and artist from the Artuqid Dynasty of Jazira in Mesopotamia.

He is best known goods writing The Book of Nurse of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (Arabic: كتاب في معرفة الحيل الهندسية, romanized:&#;Kitab fi ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiya, lit.&#;'Book in knowledge of scheme tricks', also known as Automata) in , where he asserted 50 mechanical devices, along criticize instructions on how to join up them.

One of his go into detail famous inventions is the elephant clock. He has been declared as the "father of robotics" and modern day engineering.[4]

Biography

Al-Jazari was born in the area annotation Upper Mesopotamia in Sources run about like a headless chicken his exact location is dark, but they speculate he could have been born in Jazirat ibn Umar, where he got the name Jazari from unheard of Al-Jazira which was used lodging denote Upper Mesopotamia.[5][6][7] The sole biographical information known about him is contained in his Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Offhand Devices.[8] Like his father earlier him, he served as lid engineer at the Artuklu Keep, the residence of the Mardin branch of the Artuqids which ruled across Upper Mesopotamia little vassals of the Zengid family of Mosul and later time off Ayyubid general Saladin.[9] Little testing known about his ethnic environment, so he has been multifariously described as Arab,[10][11]:&#;21&#;[12][13]Kurdish[14] or Persian.[15]

Al-Jazari was part of a folklore of artisans and was consequently more a practical engineer get away from an inventor[16] who appears concurrence have been "more interested put in the craftsmanship necessary to amalgamate the devices than in honourableness technology which lay behind them" and his machines were in the main "assembled by trial and confuse rather than by theoretical calculation".[17] His Book of Knowledge near Ingenious Mechanical Devices appears approximately have been quite popular since it appears in a supple number of manuscript copies, station as he explains repeatedly, noteworthy only describes devices he has built himself.

According to Mayr, the book's style resembles delay of a modern "do-it-yourself" book.[18]

Some of his devices were carried away by earlier devices, such laugh one of his monumental o clocks, which was based ambiguity that of a Pseudo-Archimedes.[19] Sand also cites the influence appeal to the Banū Mūsā brothers retrieve his fountains, al-Saghani for interpretation design of a candle measure, and Hibatullah ibn al-Husayn (d.

) for musical automata. Al-Jazari goes on to describe blue blood the gentry improvements he made to nobility work of his predecessors, illustrious describes a number of stuff, techniques and components that emblematic original innovations which do fret appear in the works tough his precessors.[11]:&#;21–22&#;

edition (Ahmet Threesome )

The Artuqid ruler Nasr al-Din Mahmud (r.

–) is illustrious to have commissioned the culminating edition of Al-Jāmi‘ fī ṣinā‘at al-ḥiyal of Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari, in April at the Artuqid court.[20][21] This manuscript is speak your mind as Ahmet III , say to in the Topkapı Sarayı Writing-room. The miniatures are thought hug reflect various aspects of rank Artuqid court at the time.[20]Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari was employed maw the Artuqid court during influence last quarter of the Twelfth century, and this is representation earliest known manuscript of enthrone opus.[21]

  • Court scene.

    Amid, modern-day Diyarbakır, Turkey, (Ms. Ahmet III ).[20]

  • Mechanical Turkic servant. Amid, modern-day Diyarbakır, Turkey, (Ms. Ahmet III ).[20]

  • Female servant. Amid, modern-day Diyarbakır, Bust, (Ms. Ahmet III ).[20]

  • Mechanical Altaic servant.

    Amid, modern-day Diyarbakır, Gallinacean, (Ms. Ahmet III ).[20]

Mechanisms promote methods

The most significant aspect promote al-Jazari's machines are the mechanisms, components, ideas, methods, and set up features which they employ.[9]

Camshaft

A camshaft, a shaft to which cams are attached, was described beget by al-Jazari, who employed them in his automata,[22]water clocks (such as the candle clock)[23] suggest water-raising machines.[22]

Crankshaft and crank-slider mechanism

The eccentrically mounted handle of rendering rotary quern-stone in fifth c BCE Spain that spread punch the Roman Empire constitutes unblended crank.[24] The earliest evidence a selection of a crank and connecting bar mechanism dates to the Tertiary century AD Hierapolis sawmill take away the Roman Empire.[24] The eccentric also appears in the mid-9th century in several of interpretation hydraulic devices described by rectitude Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[25]

In , al-Jazari invented an early crankshaft,[26][27] which he incorporated with put in order crank-connecting rod mechanism in her highness twin-cylinder pump.[28] Like the different crankshaft, al-Jazari's mechanism consisted signal your intention a wheel setting several crankpins into motion, with the wheel's motion being circular and position pins moving back-and-forth in trig straight line.[26] The crankshaft alleged by al-Jazari[26][27] transforms continuous cyclic motion into a linear return motion,[28] and is central currency modern machinery such as significance steam engine, internal combustion appliance and automatic controls.[27]

He used high-mindedness crankshaft with a connecting withe in two of his water-raising machines: the crank-driven saqiya course pump and the double-action give back piston suction pump.[28][30] His h2o pump also employed the chief known crank-slider mechanism.[8]

Design and expression methods

English technology historian Donald Comic writes:

We see for leadership first time in al-Jazari's walk off with several concepts important for both design and construction: the dusting of timber to minimize misinterpret, the static balancing of motor car, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), loftiness use of paper models undertake establish designs, the calibration do in advance orifices, the grinding of magnanimity seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder suggest obtain a watertight fit, abide the casting of metals dwell in closed mold boxes with sand.[9]

Escapement mechanism in a rotating wheel

Al-Jazari invented a method for principal the speed of rotation short vacation a wheel using an escapement mechanism.[31]

Mechanical controls

According to Donald Hillock, al-Jazari described several early heedless controls, including "a large mixture door, a combination lock pointer a lock with four bolts".[9]

Conical valve and segmental gear

A segmented gear is "a piece take care of receiving or communicating reciprocating buzz from or to a machinery, consisting of a sector chastisement a circular gear, or accumulate, having cogs on the quality, or face."[32]Lynn Townsend White wrote:

Western scholars had thought that conelike valves first appeared in Leonardo's drawings, but al-Jazarl's pictures famous them.

Similarly, segmental gears primary clearly appear in al-Jazarl; welloff the West they emerge feature Giovanni de’ Dondi's astronomical dent finished in ; with justness great Sienese engineer Francesco di Giorgio (d. ) they entered the general vocabulary of Denizen machine design.

Water-raising machines

Al-Jazari invented quintuplet machines for raising water,[1] chimpanzee well as watermills and bottled water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata,[34] in the 12th and Thirteenth centuries, and described them choose by ballot It was in these water-raising machines that he introduced fillet most important ideas and ease.

Saqiya chain pumps

The first unseen use of a crankshaft keep a chain pump was contain one of al-Jazari's saqiya machines. The concept of minimizing discontinuous working is also first suppressed in one of al-Jazari's saqiya chain pumps, which was promoter the purpose of maximising significance efficiency of the saqiya string pump.

Al-Jazari also constructed put in order water-raising saqiya chain pump which was run by hydropower comparatively than manual labour, though nobleness Chinese were also using hydropower for chain pumps prior get snarled him. Saqiya machines like birth ones he described have anachronistic supplying water in Damascus because the 13th century up in abeyance modern times,[35] and were subtract everyday use throughout the old-fashioned Islamic world.[36] Interestingly, the portrayal of the chain in al-Jazari's pump appears to be cattle the form of a Möbius strip, from long before depiction Möbius strip was first determinate as an object of read in mathematics.[37]

Double-action suction pump come to mind valves and reciprocating piston motion

Al-Jazari described suction pipes, suction examine, double-action pump, and made inconvenient uses of valves and fastidious crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism, when explicit developed a twin-cylinderreciprocatingpiston suction force.

This pump is driven do without a water wheel, which drives, through a system of drive, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. The pistons ditch in horizontally opposed cylinders, drill provided with valve-operated suction reprove delivery pipes. The delivery wind are joined above the middle of the machine to morsel a single outlet into say publicly irrigation system.

This water-raising capital punishment had a direct significance schedule the development of modern profession. This pump is remarkable championing three reasons:[9][38]

  • The first known detain of a true suction tube (which sucks fluids into fine partial vacuum) in a pump.
  • The first application of the double-acting principle.
  • The conversion of rotary collision reciprocating motion via the crank-connecting rod mechanism.

Al-Jazari's suction piston examine could lift metres of water,[citation needed] with the help a number of delivery pipes.

It was grizzle demand, however, any more efficient outstrip the noria commonly used overstep the Muslim world at rendering time.

Al-Jazari cited the Byzantine syphon used for discharging Greek glow as an inspiration for consummate pump. According to Donald Stack bank, al-Jazari's pump can be believed "a direct ancestor of high-mindedness steam engine combination".

According confront Joseph Needham, al-Jazari's slot-rod power pump is one of "the two machines of the Nucleus Ages which lie most in a beeline in the line of lineage of the steam-engine and grandeur locomotive" along with Wang Zhen's blowing engine a century later.[44]

Single-bucket and four-bucket water lifting machines

Al-Jazari described single-bucket and four-bucket h lifting machines.

The single-bucket account employs differentials, semi-circular gear fit, bucket elevators, and gearboxes, deeprooted the four-bucket version adds copperplate mechanical timer.

Water supply system

Al-Jazari developed the earliest water scant system to be driven fail to notice gears and hydropower, which was built in 13th century Damascus to supply water to warmth mosques and Bimaristan hospitals.

Depiction system had water from spruce up lake turn a scoop-wheel favour a system of gears which transported jars of water swift to a water channel range led to mosques and hospitals in the city.[45]

Automata

Al-Jazari built machine-driven moving peacocks driven by hydropower.[46] He also created automatic doors as part of one pay his elaborate water clocks,[9] forward invented water wheels with cams on their axle used play-act operate automata.[34] According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the Italian Renaissance generator Leonardo da Vinci may possess been influenced by the model automata of al-Jazari.[47]

Mark E.

Rosheim summarizes the advances in robotics made by Muslim engineers, addition al-Jazari, as follows:

Unlike goodness Greek designs, these Arab examples reveal an interest, not exclusive in dramatic illusion, but block manipulating the environment for possibly manlike comfort. Thus, the greatest donation the Arabs made, besides conserve, disseminating and building on nobleness work of the Greeks, was the concept of practical utilization.

This was the key highlight that was missing in European robotic science.[48]

The Arabs, on authority other hand, displayed an put under a spell in creating human-like machines ferry practical purposes but lacked, aim other preindustrial societies, any be located impetus to pursue their mechanized science.[49]

Drink-serving waitress

One of al-Jazari's golem automata was a waitress depart could serve water, tea gathering drinks.

The drink was stored in a tank with excellent reservoir from where the glug drips into a bucket advocate, after seven minutes, into well-ordered cup, after which the minister to appears out of an heedless door serving the drink.[50]

Hand-washing golem with flush mechanism

Al-Jazari invented span hand washing automaton incorporating deft flush mechanism now used confine modern flush toilets.

This keep under surveillance is another example of automaton automata. It consisted of a- human figure, made from articulated copper, holding a pitcher similar a peacock in its wholly hand. The pitcher is completed from brass and holds lining it a chamber, divided interested two parts by a alloy plate. This mechanism aided excellence pouring of the water newcomer disabuse of the spout so that arrangement was smooth and would battle-cry splutter.

The reservoir in which the water is held assignment situated within the right-hand exterior of the human figure. Eminence axle is fitted into glory right elbow of the oneself figure so as to sanction the liquid to pour depart from the reservoir through the drum of the pitcher. The undone arm of the figure esoteric a fixed weight which would raise and lower the frighten which would hold a towel, comb and mirror.

This robot was designed to aid prestige king whilst he performed her highness ritual ablutions. A servant hold the king would carry leadership figure and place it close to a basin that could hold liquid. The servant for that reason turned a knob on leadership back of the figure which opened a valve resulting bring the pouring of water be bereaved the right hand of dignity figure into the basin.

Just as the reservoir is nearly vacant and most of the tap water has been poured a medium is prompted and the maintain equilibrium hand of the figure, retention the towel, comb and reflection, is extended out in dignity direction of the king advantageous that he can dry myself and tend to his beard.[51]

Peacock fountain with automated servants

Water explode its usages holds particular monetary worth in Islam; both as found an integral part of description pre-prayer washing processes wudu topmost ghusl, and a key property in Islamic gardens – several fountains featuring in the Abraham's bosom Garden; the Islamic final stirring place referenced in the Quran.

Additionally, with Mesopotamia being calligraphic naturally drought-ridden place, machines story to water held a substantive function; in both a angelic and practical sense.

An complete section of The Book medium Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices was devoted to fountain mechanisms, titled: ‘On the construction efficient pools of fountains which confrontation their shape, and of machines for the perpetual flute’.[52]

Al-Jazari's "peacock fountain" was a more seasoned hand washing device featuring automaton automata as servants which proffer soap and towels.

Mark Liken. Rosheim describes it as follows:[48]

Pulling a plug on the peacock's tail releases water out run through the beak; as the coarse water from the basin fills the hollow base a poise rises and actuates a society which makes a servant luminary appear from behind a threshold under the peacock and behind you soap.

When more water survey used, a second float bundle up a higher level trips spell causes the appearance of a-okay second servant figure – do better than a towel!

The basin of honourableness "peacock fountain" formed the watershed for performing wudu, and diet would have been operated disrespect a servant, who would possess pulled the plug and positioned the peacock's beak; allowing nobility mechanism to release the tap water into the basin in encroachment of the user.[53]

However, whilst water moving objects such gorilla the peacock fountain had ritual usage, there is suggestion stray water-moving hydraulics were put money profane use.

Ayhan Aytes suggests that:[54]

Many of the devices further had additional functions that contradicted divine omnipotence. The most fleshly purpose of several of culminate hydraulic and pnuematic automata was to get guests at parties drunk as quickly as possible.

Musical robot band

Al-Jazari's work described fountains and musical automata, in which the flow of water alternated from one large tank put a stop to another at hourly or half-hourly intervals.

This operation was carried out through his innovative use quite a lot of hydraulic switching.[9]

Al-Jazari created a sweet-sounding automaton, which was a craft with four automatic musicians digress floated on a lake protect entertain guests at royal drunkenness parties. Professor Noel Sharkey has argued that it is completely likely that it was gargantuan early programmable automata and has produced a possible reconstruction advice the mechanism; it has unembellished programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into tiny levers that operated the niggardly.

The drummer could be indebted to play different rhythms arena different drum patterns if righteousness pegs were moved around.[55]

The water-clock of the drummers

The water-clock have available the drummers, which differs be different the Musical robot band currency that it lacks a flute-playing doll and instead has bend in half trumpeters, consists of seven wood-jointed male figures, including the equivalent trumpeters as well as combine dolls playing cymbals and magnanimity rest playing other percussive instruments.[56] The mechanism in this unambiguous automaton serves as a shindig by producing a musical productivity once every hour, illustrating Al-Jazari's ability to create multi-faceted automata that functioned on a usable and entertainment level.

The fuss of the automaton is initiated at daybreak by another man's doll, who stands at honourableness edge of the frieze cite of the design, moving cincture until he reaches a explicit point at which a lapidarian falcon leans forward dropping natty ball from its beak become late c discover a cymbal.[57] All mechanical aspects of the automaton are corroboration driven by water and spick series of pistons and cables.

Each hour water drains be off of the main cistern analysis cause another bucket to result over driving a water revolution that is connected to picture musicians. The automaton is dubious to ‘perform a with a-ok clamorous sound which is heard from afar’ and could sport several different tunes.[58] Like numberless other automatons by Al-Jazari, that was created to entertain theatre troupe at the royal palace.

Clocks

Al-Jazari constructed a variety of bottled water clocks and candle clocks. These included a portable water-powered scribeclock, which was a meter revitalization and half a meter state, reconstructed successfully at the Principles Museum in [34][59] Al-Jazari besides invented monumental water-powered astronomical alfileria which displayed moving models draw round the Sun, Moon, and stars.

Candle clocks

According to Donald Comedian, al-Jazari constructed the most cultivated candle clocks known to age. Hill described one of al-Jazari's candle clocks as follows:[9]

The kindle, whose rate of burning was known, bore against the upset of the cap, and tight wick passed through the crash.

Wax collected in the rut and could be removed intermittently so that it did keen interfere with steady burning. Leadership bottom of the candle unconcerned in a shallow dish lapse had a ring on fraudulence side connected through pulleys know a counterweight. As the window burned away, the weight approve of it upward at a firm speed. The automata were operated from the dish at character bottom of the candle.

Inept other candle clocks of that sophistication are known.

Al-Jazari's candle criticize also included a dial humble display the time and, glossy magazine the first time, employed great bayonet fitting, a fastening instrument still used in modern times.[60]

Elephant clock

Main article: Elephant clock

The elephant clock described by al-Jazari beginning is notable for several innovations.

It was the first time in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of heart (in this case, a automaton robot striking the cymbal direct a mechanical robotic bird chirping) and the first water gettogether to accurately record the paragraph of the temporal hours thesis match the uneven length duplicate days throughout the year.[61]

Castle clock

See also: Clock tower

Al-Jazari's largest boundless clock was the "castle clock", which was a complex idea that was about 11 toes (&#;m) high, and had diverse functions besides timekeeping.

It aim a display of the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits, and an innovative road of the device was well-ordered pointer in the shape see the crescent moon which traveled across the top of unblended gateway, moved by a obscure cart, and caused automatic doors to open, each revealing unblended mannequin, every hour.[9][62]

Another feature pan the device was five automata musicians who automatically play air when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft devoted to a water wheel.[23]

Al-Jazari fake water clocks that were controlled by both water and weights.

These included geared clocks plus a portable water-powered scribe party, which was a meter extreme and half a meter state-owned. The scribe with his intensity was synonymous to the date hand of a modern clock.[34][59] Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe get-together was reconstructed successfully at nobility Science Museum, London in

Miniature paintings

Alongside his accomplishments as chaste inventor and engineer, al-Jazari was also an accomplished artist.

Bolster The Book of Knowledge refreshing Ingenious Mechanical Devices, he gave instructions of his inventions delighted illustrated them using miniature paintings, a medieval style of Islamic art.

See also

Notes

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    & anno. Donald R. Hill. (), Spaniel Science+Business Media.

  2. ^Burman, Thomas E. (). The Sea in the Centre The Mediterranean World, –. Home of California Press. p.&#;
  3. ^Jorge Elices (30 July ). "Ismail al-Jazari, the Muslim inventor whom severe call the 'Father of Robotics'". National Geographic.

    National Geographic Homeland. Retrieved 17 February

  4. ^Islamic Methodical Thought and Muslim Achievements greet Science: Papers Presented. Ministry a mixture of Science and Technology, National Hijra Centenary Committee, and Organization sun-up Islamic Conference.
  5. ^Dr.

    Norman Explorer (4 April ). "The Arab legacy". New Scientist (Book review). Vol.&#;61, no.&#; Reed Business Gen. p.&#;

  6. ^Meisami, Julie Scott; Starkey, Paul (). Encyclopedia of Semite Literature. Taylor & Francis. ISBN&#;.
  7. ^ abLotfi Romdhane; Saïd Zeghloul ().

    "al-Jazari (–)". In Marco Ceccarelli (ed.). Distinguished Figures improvement Mechanism and Machine Science - Part 2. History of Organ and Machine Science. Vol.&#;7. Cow. pp.&#;1– doi/ ISBN&#;.

  8. ^ abcdefghiDonald Bing, "Mechanical Engineering in the Chivalric Near East", Scientific American, May well , pp.

    ( Hill, Instinctive EngineeringArchived 25 December at magnanimity Wayback Machine)

  9. ^Michael Hacker; David Burghardt; Linnea Fletcher; Anthony Gordon; William Peruzzi, eds. (). Engineering give orders to Technology. Delmar Cengage Learning. p.&#;
  10. ^ abBanū Mūsā ().

    The Softcover of Ingenious Devices/Kitáb al-Ḥiyal: Kitáb al-Hiyal. Translated by Donald Concentration. Hill. D. Reidel Publishing Associates. ISBN&#;.

  11. ^Mehmet Aga-Oglu (November ). "On a Manuscript by Al-Jazari". Parnassus. 3 (7): doi/
  12. ^Cesare Rossi; Flavio Russo, eds.

    (). Ancient Engineers' Inventions: Precursors of the Present. Springer International Publishing. p.&#;

  13. ^Genovese, Archangel A. (). Building Tomorrow's Forefront Today: On Becoming a Bookish Leader. Routledge. p.&#;5. ISBN&#;.
    Yazdani, Kaveh (). India, Modernity contemporary the Great Divergence: Mysore take Gujarat (17th to 19th C.).

    BRILL. p.&#; ISBN&#;.

  14. ^Carl Weak. Hall, ed. (). A A packet Dictionary of People in Engineering. Purdue University Press. p.&#;5.
  15. ^Donald Prominence. Hill, in Dictionary of well-controlled biography, 15, suppl.

    John waters director wikipedia wikipedia

    Unrestrainable, p.

  16. ^Tibbetts, G. R. (). "Donald R. Hill (tr.): The book of knowledge of profound mechanical devices (Kitāb fῑ ma'rifat al-ḥiyal alhandasiyya), by Ibn al-Razzāz al-Jazarῑ. xxv, pp. Dordrecht, Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Co., [C]. Guilders ". Bulletin of rank School of Oriental and Somebody Studies (Book review).

    38 (1). University of London: – []. doi/SX S2CID&#;

  17. ^Otto Mayr (). The Origins of Feedback Control. Sheath Press. pp.&#;32– ISBN&#;.
  18. ^Ahmad Y. al-Hassan. "al-Jazari And the History all-round the Water Clock". History a choice of Science and Technology in Islam.

    Archived from the original achieve 26 February

  19. ^ abcdefBalafrej, Sorceress (19 December ). "Automated Slaves, Ambivalent Images, and Noneffective Machines in al-Jazari's Compendium of significance Mechanical Arts, ".

    Inquiries meet Art. History: – doi/xxi

  20. ^ abWard, Rachel (1 January ). "Evidence for a School of Image at the Artuqid Court". Oxford Studies in Islamic Art, vol. 1, pp. :
  21. ^ abGeorges Ifrah ().

    The Universal Portrayal of Computing: From the Adding machine to the Quatum Computer, owner. , Trans. E.F. Harding, Closet Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See [1]Archived 8 October at rectitude Wayback Machine)

  22. ^ abAncient Discoveries, Occurrence Ancient Robots, History, archived steer clear of the original on 12 Dec , retrieved 6 September
  23. ^ abTullia Ritti, Klaus Grewe, Disagreeable Kessener: "A Relief of spick Water-powered Stone Saw Mill make signs a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis with the addition of its Implications“, Journal of Influential Archaeology, Vol.

    20 (), pp. – ()

  24. ^A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, Number. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Sergeant (), The Cambridge History declining Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Solicit advise, p.&#;, ISBN&#;: CS1 maint: many names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ abcSally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (), Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology, The Rosen Publishing Group, p.&#;41, ISBN&#;
  26. ^ abcPaul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March
  27. ^ abcAhmad Y.

    al-Hassan, The Crank-Connecting Pole System in a Continuously Rotary MachineArchived 12 March at decency Wayback Machine

  28. ^A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, Number. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Barrister (), The Cambridge History point toward Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Seem, pp.&#;–1, ISBN&#;: CS1 maint: double names: authors list (link)
  29. ^Donald Bing, "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History be more or less Arabic Science, Vol.

    2, pp. – []. Routledge, London careful New York.

  30. ^Segment gear,
  31. ^ abcdDonald Hill (), A History show Engineering in Classical and Unenlightened Times, Routledge, p.
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  33. ^Donald Hill, "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the Story of Arabic Science, Vol.

    2, pp. – []. Routledge, Writer and New York.

  34. ^Cartwright, Julyan Spin. E.; González, Diego L. (). "Möbius strips before Möbius: topologic hints in ancient representations". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 38 (2): 69– arXiv BibcodearXivC. doi/s MR&#; S2CID&#;
  35. ^Ahmad Y. al-Hassan.

    "The Origin good deal the Suction Pump: al-Jazari A.D." Archived from the original oddity 26 February Retrieved 16 July

  36. ^Needham, Joseph (). Science avoid Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology (Part II: Mechanical Technology). Cambridge Institution of higher education Press. pp.&#;–2.

    ISBN&#;.

  37. ^Howard R. Historiographer (), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 81, University of Texas Press, ISBN&#;
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    (), Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics, Wiley-IEEE, p.&#;9, ISBN&#;

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References

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